The Anatomy of an Essay Part 3: Evaluating Sources

Greetings grammophiles!

In this third installment of our series on the anatomy of an essay (we've come a long way since Robert Burton's Anatonmie of Melancholie!), I will discuss how to evaluate the quality of a particular resource. The proliferation of the internet has certainly made information more accessible, but ease of accessibility also makes it more difficult to determine which sources are the most credible. A credible source makes your argument more credible as well.

Ranking Quality
As you may have learned from a few of my recent posts about writing lab, a second reader tends to improve the quality of your work. The same is true in the publishing world. Any resource that has been reviewed by one or more experts (peers) in a particular field is considered the highest quality or most credible. Some of the most credible sources are:

Books
Scholarly Journal Articles
E-Journals
News Magazine Articles
Newspaper Articles
Expert Testimony (like in court)

Sources are considered less credible when they are not reviewed by an editor, publisher, or expert in the field. Does this mean you cannot use these resources at all? Absolutely not. This just means that you should be even more suspicious about how well the author has grounded his or her arguments (empirical research, logic, other expert opinions). Some less credible resources include:

Authorless Papers
Editorials
Personal Blogs
Subjective Reports (the author fails to deliver both sides of the argument)
Wikipedia (great place to start your research but doesn't belong in
your final works cited page)

Of course this list is subjective as well (this is a blog too you know), and it may not be directly applicable to all types of writing. But if you are looking to write an argumentative essay, founded on factual research and logical argument, you should definitely make every effort to establish the credibility of your resources.

Hints and Caveats
* Age matters: some resources get better with age, and some do not. Some of the best thinking about Homer's Iliad was published in the 1920s. However, the same is not true for rocket scientists.

* Expertise matters: some people just have better and more insightful things to say about a subject than others. Do some research to find out who is the most widely regarded expert in your particular field. Read that person first.

* Conciseness matters: why read 300 pages of rambling musings on a subject when you can read 30? Just because a book or resource is longer, does not mean it is automatically better. Look for the resources that develop a clear argument within a manageable amount of space.

Happy researching, and keep the comments coming.

Brady Spangenberg

The anatomy of an essay - Part 2 - Planning before writing

A step that students often leave out is the essay plan.

It is important to have an idea of what you are going to write before you begin. Once you have done your research and gathered your notes, you will have a good idea of your approach. A mind map is a great tool to use to help you organise your thoughts and make a solid framework for your ideas.

Mind maps are based on the work of cognitive specialist, Tony Buzan who is featured on the side of this post. They enable you to expand your ideas exponentially, helping you to understand your readings, topic notes and make links and associations with your question.

I have made up a simple generic mind map to demonstrate the basic structure of an essay. You can organise the body of your essay and the content of the answer with references easily and this can be a great tool to help you as you write and further develop your ideas. (Make sure you click on the image to enlarge it.)
Below is an example of two completed mind maps for an essay.

In these mind maps, the body 1 and body 2 headings have been replaced by the topics for that section of the essay. Your mind maps could look like this, or could be quite different depending on your writing task. Happy mapping!

Susanna Carter

The anatomy of an essay Part 1 - Why an essay?

Hi Grammophiles!

For your reading and writing pleasure, the Possums (that is, Andrea, Susanna and Virginia from the University of South Australia) and the Owls (that is Brady and colleagues at Purdue) present our series 'The anatomy of an essay'.

These posts are partly our (and hopefully your) own personal reflections as writers. We also present some of the well-established 'rules' and resources from our respective organisations. This is a transcontinental view, over continents and seas, from writing departments at two universities. No doubt you have your own reflections and anecdotes so please add them.

Ultimately, essay writing at university is designed to test your critical thinking and writing skills. It is a way to synthesize your knowledge about the topics you are learning, while demonstrating your ability to find strengths, weaknesses, comparisons and solutions. These skills are directly transferable to decisions you make at work and in daily life.

Essays (compositions; papers; semester papers; term papers) come in a variety of forms. They can be long and constructed over the course of a semester (for an undergraduate at UniSA, they can be as long as 5000 words). They can also be short (such as in the case of the short essay in an exam setting). You may be assured your lecturer (professor) will look for some KEY aspects in your work.

• Have you answered the question properly? Do you understand the directive words? Arguing the case for or against something is very different to defining an issue.
  
• Do you meet the word limit set by your lecturer? In some instances, there is an unwritten 'agreement' that 10 percent over or under is acceptable. You need to check this out, as well as whether the reference list or bibliography is included.
  
• Is your case well supported by plenty of relevant references and citations? 'Millions of people think' is very different to 'A survey by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (2009) found...' Avoid bold and subjective statements and use an objective writing tone (unless asked to do otherwise)


• Is your work backed up with plenty of examples ('an example of this is where'....'this can be seen where'...'for example...')


• Have you proofread properly? This is the thing we leave the least amount of time for and sometimes find it lets us down terribly.
  
• Do you have a good introduction (usually 10% of the paper); balance in your argument and a strong conclusion (with a strong, definitive statement about your position - perhaps even speculating about the future)?
  
• Do you define key terms using both your own interpretation and supporting these with literature:

Grammar can be described as the lexical components which make up language. Chomsky (1972) explains how grammar... According to Spangenberg (2009) being good at grammar involves...

Essays (and/or compositions) require good time management skills. In my own personal experience, I have spent far, far too long looking for the just right literature - compromising the rest of the writing process - particularly the proofreading. Plot the milestones around the planning, research, drafting, proofreading. Whatever you estimate for the drafting and proofreading, add a day or so. I would allow (conservatively) two weeks for the construction of a 5000 word paper. However work should start way before this time as you collate lecture notes and keep a log of your readings.

Here are some of the areas which really let people down:

• Sparse reference lists (a 5000 word essay would have between 15 - 20 references)
  
• Bold statements and generalisations not backed up with theory or evidence (I think...)
  
• Lack of proofreading
  
• Not answering the question properly.

Here are some things which attract great marks:

• Meaty reference lists - plenty of citations which are relevant and recent. (This is strictly between you and me*, but I have a sneaking suspicion some lecturers and professors go straight to the reference list, looking for breadth and currency, before they look at the rest of the paper!)
  
• Balance in arguments - use of linking words to show contrast and similarity; structure and alternative ideas
  
• Use of objectivity in expression (an academic tone avoids the first person 'I')

What are your thoughts about essays? Do you have some pointers to share? What have you learnt through the essay writing process?

Andrea Duff

* That is, between you, me and the other 3,000 or so people who visit the Grammar Gang blog each month

PS Thanks Clip Art for this week's graphic.

Lessons from the Writing Lab

Greetings grammophiles! Today is my official last day as a graduate tutor in the Purdue Writing Lab. I am off to more literary pastures in the following school year (not "greener" just different). While all these experiences are still fresh in my mind, I wanted to pass along some of the lessons I've learned about writing and, maybe, life.

Be Persistent
For the vast majority of writers, the Romantic notion of genius-inspired creativity just doesn't apply. There are very few people who can sit down and write a perfect essay, poem, or report the first time. Good writing takes time, and it is the persistent writers, the ones who consistently revisit their ideas, who generally succeed in communicating something interesting. Writing can be frustrating. I see it in my clients' faces on almost a daily basis. Luckily, I have never had anyone cry during a consultation. There have been plenty of sighs and groans.

That frustration may not be a negative thing. Take it as a sign that you need to slow down and think about the topic a little more. I also notice that our repeat clients, particularly the ones who have poured hours into a document, tend to exhibit less and less frustration as they move along. I am also struggling through a personal statement at the moment, and I came across Mary Hale Tolar's (Executive Secretary, Truman Scholarship Foundation) suggestions for writing a personal statement. She suggests engaging in activities that keep your body busy but your mind free to wander. Some of my favorites: take a walk, weed the garden, take a shower (you would be surprised how many ideas come up in the shower!).

Get a Second Reader (and a Third and a Fourth)
The idea sounds simple. It can be a little intimidating to ask someone else to read your stuff. Strangers generally work better as second readers than friends or relatives. Strangers are more likely to give you an honest assessment. Since strangers are unfamiliar with your work, you may find that having to explain your ideas to someone else can actually be quite fruitful. You may see your project in a new light, or you might suddenly utter that perfect sentence you have been stuck on for two weeks. Just make sure to have paper and pencil (or computer) handy if you are talking informally about your writing. A few nights ago, I was walking with my wife and said something that would have been fantastic to put in my personal statement. But by the time I got home, the magic had vanished. If this happens to you, see above.

Seek Out Strategies Rather Than Fixes
Anyone can "fix" your paper, but if you passively sit by and do not participate in the revision process, chances are you will make that mistake again. Allowing someone else to correct what you did wrong means that you haven't learned anything. You will always need to have that other person's approval to make sure it is "right." That is why it is better to seek out "strategies" for writing and revising rather than quick fixes. Strategies serve as a guidelines for choices. Yes, think of writing as a series of choices to be made. Strategies should help you decide between active and passive constructions, simple and complex sentences, or even something simple as the verb "abscond" over "sneak out." If you have trouble with articles, seek out some guidelines for using "the/a/an" in your writing. You may be surprised that as your writing gets better, so too will your speaking.

There Is Always an Audience
You can help your writing immensely by finding an audience, even if it means you have to imagine one. "You" can also be your own audience, which works great for diary entries but can only get you so far with other types of writing. Audiences, imagined or otherwise, will help give your paper a focus as well as an argumentation style. Do you want to persuade, inform, or entertain your audience? What type of information will they appreciate (and recognize) the most? Having an audience may also help you bring your document to a close. If you know there is someone out there waiting to read your writing, you are more likely to finish it at some point.

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In closing, I just want to write a note of thanks to everyone in the Purdue Writing Lab. It has been a great place to work for the past two years, and I have learned more about writing and the process of writing than I ever would have otherwise. This, however, does not mean I'll be leaving the Grammar Gang. Good luck and keep typing away.

Brady Spangenberg

Does It Even Matter?

Today I want to address a fairly simple question with a not-so-straightforward answer. Why should we care at all about grammatical "correctness?" This post is dedicated to anyone who has ever thought grammar just seemed like one of those tools that over-bearing instructors use to harass unwitting students. Sure, many grammar rules seem trivial at best. For example, does it really matter if I end a sentence with a preposition? Do I really deserve a lower grade for inserting commas where (you say) they don't belong? By whose authority did knowing the difference between "that" and "which" become the standard for testing English competency? The short answer is both "no" and "yes." The most frustrating part for English speakers, both native and non-native alike, is that with no Academie Francaise (French) or Kultusministerium (German) to regulate spelling and grammar, the English language can truly seem like the wild frontier. Time to bring out your dueling pistols.

Instead of worrying about the business of right and wrong, let's think about grammar as a puzzle. Some pieces fit in particular places better than others. But the great part about language is that it is combinative, meaning that the puzzle can be put together many different ways. Particular pieces or words do not always have to go in certain spots. You can start a sentence with a noun, an adverb, or even a twenty-word phrase if you want. By moving things around, you can add emphasis, change direction, or even hide something.

In terms of "right" and "wrong," the most important factor to consider is audience. When you are chatting with friends or family, it matters very little whether you say "who" or "whom" in the appropriate places. They will understand you regardless and are probably more focused on the content of your speech rather than how you say it. In fact, there are some instances where using the grammatically correct word, like "whom," may draw unwanted attention. Your family might think you are trying to talk down to them or, even worse, making fun of them.

Grammar is a puzzle in two ways. You have to string together the words in a way that makes sense logically. But these words and phrases also need to be appropriate for your audience. Slang, contractions, and ungrammatical phrases are great for communicating with friends but not so great at a job interview (unless the job is working for your best friend--if that's the case you probably won't be sitting in a formal interview anyway). Audience awareness is almost just as important as grammar knowledge. In fact, the identity of your audience can even change the grammar rules you will use.

So, does it matter if you end your sentences with a preposition? The short answer is yes, if your audience cares. No, if your audience doesn't. See y'all at the OK Corral.

Brady Spangenberg

Nicer than the Nicest

Greetings grammophiles! It is summer in Indiana and time to relax, so I want to discuss something a little less mind-bending than "over-nominalization." About a year ago, we received an email question at the OWL about the comparative of the adjective "clever." Is it "cleverer" or "more clever?" The dictionary recommends "cleverer," but almost everyone I talk to about this hedges toward "more clever." I think it's because "cleverer" sounds like a car engine that doesn't want to start.

Anyway, most people have been reciting "good/better/best" since elementary school days, but I am interested in some of the more obscure comparatives and superlatives out there, like "cleverer." Here is a small list of adjectives that do not have an easy "gut feeling" answer. Ask yourself whether you would create a comparative by adding an "-(e)r" to the end of the word or placing a "more" in front of it.

calm
clever
common
obscure
sad
salty
sure
strict
stupid
unique
unsure

Well, if you're stumped, you aren't the only one. I have actually learned a lot from researching this post. I have given the "recommended" answers in the comments section--just to keep you from cheating. As always, additions, arguments, or anecdotes are welcome (how's that for alliteration?).

Regards,
Brady Spangenberg

The end of language, as we know it...

It's outrageous!

With all these young people SMS-ing and texting all over the place today, correct grammar is going out the window (Professor Cods-wallop)

Often, lecturers complain that emails from students contain SMS-speak and students are losing the ability to write cogent, formal sentences.

Is it the case that the use of SMS language will lead to the demise of correct English and grammar in writing - or is this pure speculation (ie a load of rubbish on the part of the stuffy establishment!)


Wot r yr views re txting? LOL!! BRB.

Style Tips: Avoiding Over-Nominalization

Hello grammophiles. With only four weeks left until final exams, the semester is coming to a close at Purdue. Many of my recent sessions with clients at the Writing Lab have touched on strategies for improving sentence structure. Sometimes, even if all of your sentences are grammatically correct, they can still read a little "clunky." It is as if the writer goes through a series of wordy gymnastics and still doesn't get his or her point across.

An overuse of nominalizations is one major cause of "clunkiness." Nominalizations are nouns that have been created from adjectives or verbs; some examples include,

-- influence, evaluation, understanding, clarity, or [my current favorite] receptivity

Though these words carry do much of the same work as verbs or adjectives, they must be handled as nouns. In practice, this often means that your sentences will feature many more prepositions, helping verbs, and passive constructions, all of which tend to slow down your sentences and confuse your readers. Here are two over-nominalized sentences:

--An evaluation was undertaken as an investigation of the process by which sentences are formed. (3 nominalizations: evaluation, investigation, and process)

--The impression left by the judge was stern in his call for strengthening the regulation and arbitration of workplace disputes. (5 nominalizations)

Revision Strategies
Fixing nominalizations can be a difficult process, especially when it seems like there is no other way to say what you mean. The best advice is to turn your nominalizations into verbs. Instead of saying, "an evaluation was undertaken," say "we evaluated." Instead of saying, "the impression left by the judge," why not write, "the judge sternly announced." If you are having trouble with this, you may want to ask yourself this question:

-- What is the main action of the sentence? What really happens?

If the answer to this question cannot be found in the verb of your sentence but rather in one of its nouns, then you have some work to do. My friend and OWL Coordinator Allen Brizee often refers to the Paramedic Method, which was first developed by Richard Lanham. This method directly addresses issues relating to nominalizations as well as inexpressive verbs (such as "be" -- see my last post). For more on the Paramedic Method, here is a link to the OWL:

http://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/635/01/

As always, good luck to all, and keep the interesting comments coming!

Brady Spangenberg

Summer time is over in Oz

Hi there!

Summer is over in Australia and on the first of April, we had our first day of 'autumn' (or 'fall', if you live in the States). In our regular Purdue/UniSA editorial meeting, the Grammar Gang was discussing the language used in different cultures to talk about the weather.

In Australia, summer is traditionally linked to long days on the beach. We often say that it is 'beach weather'.

If it's very hot: 'It's a stinker today'

Humid weather: 'It's muggy today'

If there is a shower: We are having a spot of rain. If it's heavy rainfall: 'It's raining cats and dogs' or 'good weather for ducks'

Please post your weather language and sayings and let us know on Earth you are from.
Susanna Carter
Learning Adviser, University of South Australia
Adelaide, South Australia

Writing Like a Native: More Quick Tips for ESL Writers

This second round of tips has less to do with specific strategies and more to do with developing habits. Like playing the piano or riding a bicycle, writing in a particular language requires practice. The more you do it, the better you will become. The question is, how do you know if you are practicing it the right way? You don't want to spend years reinforcing bad habits, so here are few ideas for developing positive, language-building habits.

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1) Involve as Many Senses as Possible

Just reading words on a page will only get you so far. If you really want to learn how to speak and write like a native speaker, you need to immerse yourself in the language as much as possible. In addition to reading English, you also need to speak it and, above all, hear it. If you do not live in a place where English is regularly spoken, the internet provides many alternatives. With news podcasts, live radio streaming, and even YouTube, you have a wide variety of opportunities to access real, spoken English. Listen to a news program or radio broadcast and then try to mimic the words they say.

Unlike reading, which requires a large amount of brain power and attention, listening to a radio simulcast requires much less of your direct attention. You can play it in the background while doing other things, such as cooking, eating, or even sleeping. That's right. When I was trying to learn German, I used put on a simulcast of German radio when I would lay down for an afternoon nap. Sometimes, this type of passive listening can help you with pronunciation, pitch, and vocabulary.

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2) Read a Newspaper, Especially the Living or Lifestyle Section

Newspapers are the single greatest source for interesting and up-to-date information in a target language. Newspapers also contain more idiomatic (colloquial) language than anything else. There was a woman who came to the Writing Lab Conversation Group every day with questions about the words used in the Purdue student newspaper. Just by reading the student interviews and profiles, she was able to gain quick and easy access to the linguistic world of native speakers. If there are no English-language newspapers in your area, newspapers also have great online content. Just Google your favorite newspaper, and you will generally find the same information as you would find in the print edition.

If you have limited extra time during your day, I suggest looking through the Lifestyle or Living section of a newspaper (the one filled with local profiles, cartoons, and advice columns). These sections generally contain the highest amout of easy-to-read language, and they are also the most interesting. Sometimes it is tough to concentrate on a news story discussing complex political or economic issues. It is much more easy to relate to a woman seeking advice about her nosy mother-in-law.

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3) Write Emails to a Native Speaker

Most composition work is now done on a computer, and so if you are looking to improve your English writing skills on the computer, you should do it in as many venues as possible. The easiest and most rewarding venue is email. Make it a habit to write at least one email per day to a native speaker of your target language. Don't limit yourself to conversational topics such as the weather. Try to discuss what you are learning in one of your classes, or try to tell them about recent political developments in your country. Once you find success composing emails to native friends, you may find that composing an essay in English has also become easier. Emails are high reward, low risk writing tasks. You won't receive a bad grade or failing test score for making a mistake.

If don't have any native speaker friends, there are plenty of places that will help you. Try posting something on someone's blog. You could even post something on this blog! Or try an international pen pal Web site like,

http://www.mylanguageexchange.com/penpals.asp

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As always, good luck, and I would love to hear from some of you out there about your own L2 (second language) composition strategies.

Brady Spangenberg